New Innovations in Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol. 8

This book chapter highlights synthesis and physio chemical characterization  of  a series of   four reported zinc  complexes with substituted N,N- donor ligands viz. Lⁿ = (E)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene) anilines  with  composition  [Zn(NO₃)₂(L¹)](1), [Zn(NO₃)₂L²] (2), [Zn(NO₃)₂L³] (3), [Zn(NO₃)₂L⁴] (4). The spectroscopic properties of the complexes were studied by UV-visible, fluorescence, IR and ¹H NMR spectral analysis.  All the complexes were water soluble and non-electrolyte in solution. Efforts for getting single crystals suitable for X-ray crystal structure to determine the geometry and structure of the complexes could not be achieved. However, on the basis of spectral studies and related Zinc(II) nitrate compounds reported earlier, all the complexes   were predicted to be octahedral geometry (1-4) . The nitrate ion coordinated   to zinc complexes through monodentate (1) or bidentate (2-4) fashion. The emission spectra of all the complexes showed \(\pi\)-\(\pi\)^* (intra-ligand) transition and Zn compounds showed very low fluorescence quantum yield  indicating that they were weak emitters at room temperature.

Mercury is one of the most dangerous metals, capable of causing a wide range of health issues. The goal of this study was to see if mercury may be the cause of multiple sclerosis (MS) by comparing 88 MS-related characteristics to mercury. The findings revealed that all but five factors could be linked to mercury, with the remaining five factors having insufficient evidence to be linked to mercury in one way or another.

Nerve demyelination is a hallmark of MS, and mercury is known to cause nerve demyelination. Similar physiological and pathological changes occur in MS and mercury toxicity including those changes involved with the basal ganglia, Bell’s palsy, brain atrophy and shrinkage, brain scarring, dysmetria, myelin basic protein, myelin oliodendrocytes, glycoprotein, oligoclonal bands, oligodendrocytes, ciliary neutrophil factor, white matter, axon and myelin damage, electroencephlography, and brainstem auditory evoked potentials. Similar changes also occur in the immune system including autoimmunity, cytokine changes, gamma globulins, Epstein Barr virus, T cells, herpes virus, and urinary infections.

Hormones and biochemistry, such as myelin basic protein, myelin oliodendrocytes, glycoprotein, estriol, free radicals, glial cells, glucosteroids, female hormones, and inrerferon, show similar modifications.

The study found that all 32 physical symptoms of MS, as well as all 7 mental health symptoms and all 11 ocular symptoms, could be explained by mercury exposure.

The researchers theorised that persons living in southern latitudes are exposed to the sun more, and that the greater amounts of vitamin D, which is anti-inflammatory, may help to counteract mercury-induced inflammation.

There is a link between MS and dental caries and dental amalgams, according to studies. According to the WHO, dental amalgams are the most common source of mercury. Mercury is most likely an etiological factor in multiple sclerosis, according to the study.

While Mentha x piperita L. is a popular herb used in the northern region of Portugal to prepare tisanes the information about its possible toxicity is scarce. The goal of this study was to assess the toxicity of the aqueous extract on the physiology, morphology and biochemistry of Tetrahymena pyriformis. Mint extract affected the generation time and growth in a dose-dependent manner. It was also observed that morphometric features of the cells of T. pyriformis were affected. The MTT assay showed a dose-dependent response of mint extracts. The usage of Mentha x piperita L leaves extract must be exercised with caution.

Schiff bases are compounds obtained from the condensation reaction of a primary amine and aldehyde or ketone. They can be coordinated with metals especially the transition metals to form Schiff base complexes. The study objectives for this work are: Firstly to review the synthesis, characterization and biological activities of both Schiff base ligands and their transition metal complexes of titanium, vanadium and chromium. Secondly to look into the studies of catalytic activities of both Schiff base ligands and their transition metal complexes of titanium, vanadium as well as chromium. Thirdly to review the anti-glycation activities of aroyl-hydrazine ligands, their chromium (III) complexes and metal salt itself. The methodology used for looking for the references was through the internet. Biological activities that were considered in this review were mainly those of antibacterial and antifungal. For the antibacterial, both gram positive and gram negative strains were considered. The results obtained from the study indicated that the Schiff base complexes, Schiff bases as well as metal ions for the metals titanium, vanadium and chromium were used by different researchers to investigate antimicrobial activities against bacteria, fungi as well as anti-tumour activity against breast cancer. The antimicrobial literature studies showed that the metal ions were having lower inhibition capacity than the ligands but the complexes showed the highest inhibition capacity against the microbial. The use of Mono- and dioxide-vanadium (V) complexes showed anticancer activity against MCF-7 (breast cancer) cells. The cis-Dioxido vanadium (V) complexes were also investigated for catalytic activity on the oxidation of cyclohexane and gave conversion of 12% and selectivity of up to 85%. The paper is divided into five sections which include introduction, methodology used in looking for references, results and discussion, acknowledgements and references. The results obtained from the review show that the Schiff base complexes were more effective when screened as anti-microbial compounds than their ligands. The complexes also showed effectiveness when screened for their catalytic activity on organic chemistry reactions. Chromium (III)-aroyl-hydrazine complexes showed that they are decisive to inhibit the process of protein glycation more efficiently as compared to amino groups complexes.

Vitamin E comprised tocopherol derivatives in four different forms i.e. \(\alpha\), \(\beta\), \(\gamma\), and \(\delta\). \(\alpha\)-tocopherol is the prevalent form in photosynthetic tissues whereas, in seeds, it is \(\gamma\)-tocopherol. The total tocopherol content, their types, composition, and distribution vary in different plant tissues and under different developmental stages. Earlier, plastids were considered to be the unique subcellular localization of tocopherols, but recently their presence has also been suggested in seed lipid bodies, vacuoles, and nuclei of mesophyll cells. Tocopherol biosynthesis involves shikimate and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways, however, under limiting conditions, the MEP pathway may be switched to phytol recycling pathway during chlorophyll degradation. Tocopherols are involved in multiple functions in plant cells viz. scavenging free radicals, maintaining membrane integrity and stability; physiological regulation of enzyme activity, cellular/retrograde signaling, and gene expression. For breeding, trait variability is the prerequisite. Several studies revealed molecular and genetic bases underlying the variation in content and composition of tocopherol. The characterization of the identified QTLs in different oilseed crops may facilitate the use of high \(\alpha\)-tocopherol alleles from wild varieties in different breeding programmes for the generation of high tocopherol genotypes that could ultimately pave a way for edible oil quality improvement of different oilseed crops. Keeping all these aspects in mind, the study was carried out with following objectives: 1. Structural and distributional aspects of tocopherols in plants 2. Biosynthesis, genetics and functions of tocopherols 3. Tocopherol breeding in oilseeds.

Eggs are a very important and basic food because they are highly nutritious, cheap, and readily available. To ensure the safety of eggs, it is important to enhance their residual monitoring. The present chapter described a simple, small-scale, and time shortening procedure of sample preparation followed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled photodiode array (PDA) detector for  simultaneous quantification of astaxanthin (AX), canthaxanthin (CX), and \(\beta\)-apo-8’-carotenoic acid ethyl ester (ACAEE) in hen’s egg yolk. The HPLC-PDA was carried out with an isocratic mobile phase on a C₁₈ column. Within 30 minutes, analytes were removed from the sample with a handheld ultrasonic homogenizer, purified with MonoSpin®-SI, a centrifugal monolithic silica spin mini-column, and measured. The suggested approach yielded average recoveries of 70.5-101.1 percent for the three analytes, with relative standard deviations \(\le\)5.0%. The quantitation limits were 0.3 \(\mu\)g g^-1 for AX, 0.5 \(\mu\)g g^-1  for CX, and 1.0 \(\mu\)g g^-1  for ACAEE, respectively. The total time required for the analysis of a single sample was <30 min.

This chapter encompasses the chemistry, classification, mechanisms of action, functions and applications of hydroxy acids and Phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds are important active phytoconstituents present in fruits and vegetables as naturally occurring bioactive compounds present in plants with antioxidant activities. Phenolic acids can be categorized into different type’s hydroxy benzoic acids and hydroxy cinnamic acids. Hydroxy acids are various types present in fruits in the form of \(\alpha\)-Hydroxy acids and \(\beta\)-Hydroxy acids. Hydroxy acids can be classified into \(\alpha\)-Hydroxy acids and \(\beta\)-Hydroxy acids which include lactic acid, citric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, succinic acid. Phenolic compounds are categorized into hydroxy benzoic acid and hydroxy cinnamic acid of various forms such as gallic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, coumaric acid, ellagic acid, transcinnamic acid and many more. Phenolic compounds are natural occurring secondary metabolites present in plants. They are abundant in plants their biological activity is vast they have high therapeutic value against many diseases which include cardiovascular diseases, anti cancer, neurological disorders, skin diseases and various other acute and chronic diseases. They are therapeutically active and they have antioxidants, free radical scavenging activity. These compounds possess active phytoconstituents, they are potent active constituents found in many plants, fruits and vegetables. They are more efficacious against many diseases and they are potent active constituents present in many medicinal plants. They have less side effects and low toxicity. Still significant research is needed to prove the efficacy of these compounds and to improve the therapeutic activities through preclinical studies and human clinical investigation.

Hydroxyapatite, [Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂, (HAp)], is a mineral that is widely used in medical field, particularly as a bone and tooth substitute. Using the sol-gel method, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles were successfully synthesised from egg shells as a calcium source in this work. The egg shells were calcined, hydrated (slaking), and carbonated to produce Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC).  PCC is a calcium carbonate compound (CaCO₃) that can be processed from the material through a series of chemical reactions. PCC particles’ is homogeneous that in the same size with micro-scale particle. Then the PCC was added (NH₄)₂HPO₄ to form HAp with variation the mole ratio Ca and P (1.57; 1.67 and 1.77), aging time (24, 48, and 72 hr) and under basic condition pH (9, 10 and 11). XRD, FTIR, and SEM-EDX were used to characterise the formation of hydroxyapatite biomaterial. The XRD patterns revealed that the products were crystals of hydroxyapatite. The best results were obtained after 24 hours of ageing at pH 9 with a hexagonal hydroxyapatite structure. The particle size of HAp was 35-54 nm, and the morphology of hydroxyapatite observed using SEM revealed that the crystal of hydroxyapatite was uniform.

The percentage of oil in a representative sample of Salicornia Bigelovii seeds was assessed using different extraction methods using some organic solvents to find the most cost-effective one, and the effect of S. Bigelovii cultivation under different irrigation and fertilisation conditions on the percentage, composition, and nutrition value of oil was determined.  From the International Training Centre-Mariut, Alexandria, we got representative samples of Salicornia Bigelovii seeds which are collected from the seacoast and 17 samples of S. Bigelovii seeds which are subjected to different treatments of irrigation and fertilization. The oil percent in a blank sample (B) was calculated using various solvents (hexane, hexane-isopropanol, and ethanol) and methods (shaker, conventional, and ultrasonic). The ultrasonic probe technique evaluated oil% in 17 samples using ethanol. GC analysis was used to determine the oil composition. The phenolic and flavonoid contents in the residue were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and colorimetric method, respectively. We focused this research on the effect of Salicornia Bigelovii cultivation under different conditions of irrigation and fertilization on both the percentages and fatty acids composition of the oil. The capability of this oil is to produce biofuel and finally for nutritional, cosmeceutical, and pharmaceutical applications. The characterizations of samples will compare with blank samples that were collected from the desert coastal area of the saline aquatic environment.

Carbohydrates are naturally occurring organic compounds present in plants and animals. They are the source of energy for animals and plants. Every natural product which we eat contains carbohydrates in one or the other from. Compounds like glucose, fructose, cane-sugar, starch and cellulose which are widely distributed in plants are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and belong to the class of compounds called as carbohydrates. In this chapter importance of carbohydrates by considering plants and animals is explained. Explanation about classification and structure of carbohydrates is given. Ring structure of glucose and fructose is also mentioned. Concepts like Epimer, Mutarotation, Inversion, Reducing and non-reducing sugars are well defined. Reaction of glucose with acids, bases and oxidising reagents are also well explained.