Emerging Issues in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 5

This chapter discusses about the trends analysis of streamflow at different gauging stations in upper jhelum river basin. Water resources of the planet Earth take part in the infinitely recurrent hydrological cycle, the largest movement of matter in the Earth's system. Since water is the basic element of the life support system of the planet, it is of utmost importance to understand the impacts of the ongoing and projected climate change on water resources and water availability. In addition to the study of water resource management, stream flow trend analysis is important for flood forecasting and hydrologic drought assessment related investigations. The long-term changes in stream flow at various gauging stations in the Upper Jhelum River Basin (UJRB) of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (J & K) were estimated in this study. Trend analysis was performed using the Modified Mann-Kendall Test (MMKT). Sen^’s Slope Estimator (SSE) was used for the quantification of trend. Long term time series data of annual maximum and monthly maximum stream flows at ten gauging stations of UJRB were used for trend analysis. The annual timeseries of streamflow did not show any significant increasing or decreasing trends at any gauging station. However, all the significant trends obtained at some gauging stations during different seasons were found to be decreasing in nature. Six gauging stations exhibited decreasing streamflow trends during the month of July. Nonetheless, such investigation of water flow in the river would also assist in regional hydrologic studies besides occurrence of flood and hydrologic droughts.

Although there are numerous ways to categorize wastes, in simplicity, they could be classified as their main structural elements (i.e., metals, plastics, woods or substances which are made with a combination of materials). In general, the cost of secondary materials is somewhat pricey compared to counterpart virgin materials. In order to compete with these complex challenges, professionals need timely information on innovative projects. As the recycling industry grows, the application of secondary materials (waste materials) in urban open spaces, easily accessible to the public and applying many meanings to the cities, has increased.  There are many abandoned materials from municipal and industrial streams that could be used as urban furniture elements that promote sustainable built environment awareness. In that case, significant progress has been made in the past decade involving the enhancement of design practices and the development of cost-effective elements. However, successful urban space design is only possible when professionals have knowledge of materials and their properties during life service. From the perspective of sustainable environmental design, this study discusses the waste of recycling, and, through case study, presents the re-utilization in landscape design of urban furniture elements.

When a retaining wall moves laterally, the earth pressure decreases on the active side of the wall, and after the maximum friction force is mobilized at the base of the wall, the thrust increases on the passive side. The lateral displacement ends when the balance of forces in the horizontal direction is reached. The theories of Coulomb and Rankine consider that the shear strength of the soil contained by the wall is completely mobilized, but this hypothesis is not fulfilled, since the wall stops when the balance of forces is reached in the horizontal direction, so the earth thrust acting on the active side is greater than the active thrust calculated with Coulomb and Rankine theories, therefore, an error is incurred, that is on the side of insecurity. In this article based on Coulomb’s theory a method is presented to calculate the earth thrust on the active side of the wall considering the safety factors which the wall is designed. After the earth thrust on the active side is obtained, the earth thrust on the passive side is obtained from the balance of forces in the horizontal direction. A practical example is presented, where the traditional methodology is compared with the one stated here, where the differences are important, and they are on the side of insecurity. With the traditional methodology the wall does not detach from the base, while with the one exposed here the wall detaches from the base.

Fifteen priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in the sediments and brackish water of Citarum Irrigation System (CIS), Pakis Jaya, Karawang Regency. The samples were analysed with liquid-liquid extraction for brackish water, soxhlet extraction for sediments, and Oryzias fish. As a part of bioindicator development to recognize pollutants with small fish of the genus Oryzias, this study was conducted to assess the baseline status of PAHs distribution and sources in seawater, sediments, and Oryzias fish. The ecological risk of PAHs in sediments was also evaluated. Concentrations of fifteen USEPA PAH based on GCMS analysis in seawater, sediments, and Oryzias fish vary from 1782 to 2386.88 ng/L, 113 to 405 ng/g, and 5.39-16.47 ng/g, respectively. Based on the diagnostic ratio of PAH compounds, the potential sources of PAHs originated mainly from pyrogenic sources. The status of sediment from this Oryzias fish habitat was considered to be low polluted with PAHs.

Livestock is one of the major contributors to climate change through emissions of greenhouse gases. Future global emissions are anticipated to rise significantly in response to the growing demand for animal products. Meeting human demand for animal products and eliminating the negative effects of livestock on the environment may depend heavily on the co-existence of extensive and intensive systems. Nonetheless, it is crucial to estimate greenhouse gas emissions from farm animal species at the national level to investigate additional mitigation strategies. Approaches related to the Tier 1, 2, and 3 methodologies of IPCC standards could be useful in this evaluation. The system boundaries, the expression units of the results, and the level of methodology complexity that are applied affect the computation of the final emissions estimations in studies using Tier approaches. Nevertheless, by implementing such evaluations, various scenarios can be investigated and further expanded to eliminate GHG emissions from livestock and to develop more environmental policies at the national level. The present report aims to briefly highlight the impact of livestock on GHG emissions, the contribution of intensive and extensive systems to these emissions, the methodologies recommended by the IPCC for the assessment of GHG emissions and recent results at the country level related to the implementation of these methodologies for exploring further mitigation strategies. The steps that should followed to assess GHG emissions as well as the indices that may affect the final carbon footprint of livestock units are also noted. Parameters that also eliminate the comparison between studies that assess GHG emissions from livestock are discussed. Finally, some scenarios that could serve as mitigation strategies towards the impact of livestock on climate change at the country level are highlighted. 

The objective of this study is to formulate the concept of managing forest and land fires at the village level assuming that socio-economic, biophysical and equipment facilitation aspects greatly determine the success of fire prevention. Peatland has high capacity for carbon storage and also social-economic resource. The Tumbang Nusa area encompasses Tumbang Nusa village and Tanjung Taruna, together with a special study forest area that is managed by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry on a regional level. . The area is a peatland with peat soil depths ranging from 2 to 8 meters, which can illustrate the effects of peat fire episodes on areas with moderate to deep peat depths. The lessons learned from the 2019 fires in that area can be used to improve fire prevention tactics and management plans to prevent future surface and peat fires.  Our research has demonstrated that minimizing the likelihood of a fire occurring necessitates an awareness of socioeconomic factors such as human behaviors that spark fires. This should be accompanied by an understanding of the underlying biophysical and social factors, such as peatland characteristics, involvement of fire departments, police, and the army, fuel management, local fire danger rating, fire equipment, institutional capacity, suppression response, and post-fire action. All of these learning aspects can help to strengthen village prevention efforts.

Air Pollution, addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in climate change and damage to the environment, human health, and quality of life.

In this work, measurement of air pollutants was conducted in three regions in Basra Province as follows; (1)- Basra University, Garma Site. (2) Al- Gemaeit Site. (3)- Abi Al-Khaseeb Site The measurements of air pollutants [ CO_{2 ,} H₂S, SO₂, O₃, CO, THC ] values have been obtained from the General Directorate for Environment Protection and Improvement in the Southern Region of Iraq.

The results of this research project showed that the value of the pollutant sulfur dioxide (SO₂) reached the highest value which is (0.1393 ppm) compared with the National Ambient Air Qualit y Standards which is (0.04 ppm) in the Al- Gemaeit Site.

Likewise, the Total Hydrocarbons (THC) reached in higher values for all the regions under study, where the maximum value at Basra University, Garma Site reached to maximum value which is (16.53 ppm) compared with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards which is (3 ppm).

It is possible to conclude the transferring winds are pushed the pollutants to Basra City and the climate change can affect by air quality, and certain air pollutants can affect climate change and that contributes to climate change by trapping heat in the atmosphere.

This chapter concerned with the development of a comprehensive methodology to establish a MPAs (marine protected areas) network in the Black Sea and Azov Sea region. The Russian geographical science school has made significant progress in the development of methods of complex geographical studies of underwater landscapes and their classifications. The MPAs network is a sophisticated system of landscape zoning and mapping, defining their sustainability, variability, and geo-ecological state, and taking into consideration an assessment of the undersea landscape's degradation over the past century. These claims are supported by scientific evidence. According to our classification, geographical zoning of the Azov-Black Sea basin—the MBNCs zoning map was created with scale of 1:1,250,000. Based on the developed classification and map of the Black and Azov Seas MBNCs with different hierarchical levels of the physiographic zoning, following methodology could be suggested for the development of an ecological network for MPAs. According to the ecosystem approch proposed by MPAs, a map was created. In the Azov-Black Sea physiographic country example of degraded MBNCs requiring urgent conservation measures are Zernov Phyllophora Field, oyster beds; MBNCs involved mussels biocenoses (Mytilus galloprovincialis), MBNCs, employed biocenoses eelgrass (Zostera noutii); MBNCs Mediterranean eel habitats (Conger conger), MBNCs of species listed in the Red Book, and estuary zone Kuban river Kuban to restore populations of commercial fish species, the MBNC, commonly used types of sturgeon for feeding, wintering, breeding, and transit. This study showed that the scientific basis for the justification of placing a network of MPA is a complex project including landscape zoning and mapping, confirmed by the analysis of the main components of the MBNCs indicators that determine their variability, stability, and geo-ecological condition.

This chapter investigates the helio-geo-physical and meteorological factors variations those were matching the different cardio-events. There is also increasing evidence that seasonal climatic factors can affect the presentation of cardiovascular diseases. The events were recorded by 6 medical institutes (state establishments) of Saint Petersburg. The results highlight the significance of solar radiobursts impacts, daily fluctuations in the geomagnetic field, and shifting atmospheric pressure systems in creating hazardous conditions for individuals suffering from cardiac arrests. Alternative safe environmental conditions are also displayed for such individuals.

This study quantify, recognize, and group the ecosystem services provided by Q. Semecarpifolia forests in the Himalayan region. The genus Quercus (Oaks) comprises very important tree species of the Himalayan forests. Oaks are crucial for a multitude of ecosystem services and livelihood support services reaped by the locals in the Himalayan region. Himalayan temperate oaks are evergreen, medium- to large-sized trees, mostly found in clusters. The distribution of oak plants occurs between 800 and 3,800 m asl throughout the Himalayan region. Quercus semecarpifolia is the oldest and dominating species of the Himalayan region. Forest ecosystem services were thought of as a ‘gift of nature’ and utilized throughout generations, though their quantification, recognition, and economic valuation are often ignored or underestimated. Because of the greater range of ecosystem services and livelihood opportunities it offers, it is seen as a lifeline for the inhabitants in this region. However, because of over-reliance, this species' woodland is rapidly disappearing in his area. The main source of overexploitation is the harvesting of fuelwood and feed. Research on the quantification, value, and prioritizing of ecosystem services obtained from the Himalayan forests and other ecosystems is still in its early stages and may take several years. In order to address future comparisons, conservation, management, and the decline in ecosystem services of this species in the Himalayan region, our study offers baseline data.

This chapter focuses on the planning of constructed wetlands in existing rural communities or prospective rural settlements that must be re-planned due to various elements in Turkey settings. Wetland systems are divided into two groups as natural and artificial.   Artificial wetlands are one of the strategies used to recover water for domestic or agricultural purposes while minimizing environmental impact. An artificial wetland plan sample was created in this study for residential wastewater treatment in a village, which has cold climatic conditions, a projected population of 350, and a height of roughly 1750 m above sea level.  Wetland area with two chambers of 0.7 m in depth, 20 m in width, and 40 m in length was identified as a consequence of the planning. The effluent water's BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) value was determined to be 20.17 mg/L after 5.6 days of holding in the chamber. 

Livestock manure emits nitrous oxides (N₂O) and methane (CH₄). The well manure management system will reduce the contribution of greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. Biogas is one of the manure management systems that can produce CH₄ gas and be used for renewable energy. The study was conducted to determine the potency of biogas released from the manure of dairy cattle in producing electricity. The study used a series of dairy cattle populations (2018-2021) in three provinces, namely West Java, Central Java, and East Java. Variables used in the calculation were the potential of residential implemented biogas as renewable energy, the total dairy cattle used to provide electricity for residential in a year (AU/Residential), and electricity used in a day per residential (kWH), and the amount of electricity distributed per residential (GWh/year). The results described that biogas as renewable energy could provide electricity for about 34.09-35.91, 40.75-48.31, 92.81-98.92, and 152.83-162.38 residential in West, Central, and East Java, as well as Indonesia. The average electricity consumption in a day was 3767.56-3596.42; 3194.32-3482.53; 3491.43-3716.58; and 4047.20-4198.01 kWh in West, Central and East Java, as well as in Indonesia. Using 2.49-2.62, 2.12-2.31, 2.31-2.46, and 2.68-2.78 AU of dairy cattle/residential kept in West, Central, and East Java kept in West, Central, and East Java can provide about 96.92% of electricity produced nationally from dairy cattle's manure.

The chapter attempts to correlate and identify the periodic changes in the urban water cycle that have occurred throughout the urbanization of Bhopal City, India, during the previous twenty years and beyond. Several urban cities are facing water related problems in India and overseas. Urbanization is defined as the physical modification of landscapes that alters the natural regime of the environment surrounding it, resulting in further changes in the region's macro and micro climate. Water scarcity and urban flash floods are perennial issues in metropolitan settings. Studies have determined that land use, land cover, water extraction, and urban development are the causing factors of the hydrological cycle's impacted components, which include infiltration, runoff, and evaporation. The trend of urban development thus destabilizes water availability, water recharge, and the water cycle.  The findings are based on GIS mapping of the research region from 1991 to 2009, which used a rational approach of runoff and recharge estimates, as well as a statistical analysis of related built-up areas. Changes in the natural route of drainages have also been discovered using GIS imagery during the last twenty years, which aids in observing the adaptation of natural systems to urban courses. The observations also reveal an intriguing relationship that can be exploited for future research and sustainable development.